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Media-specific regulations and international standards that support press freedom   Media-specific regulations and international standards that support press freedom operate at two levels: domestic legal frameworks that structure media practice within Nigeria, and international human rights instruments that establish normative standards binding on states. Together, they create a layered protection system which are constitutional, statutory, regulatory, and supranational.   At the domestic level in Nigeria, Section 39 of the 1999 Constitution provides the foundational guarantee for freedom of expression and the press. However, beyond this general protection, several media-specific regulations shape how press freedom is exercised. The Nigerian Press Council Act establishes the Nigerian Press Council (NPC), which is tasked with promoting high professional standards in journalism and handling complaints against the press. While originally conceived as a self-regulatory oversight...

The Meaning of Press Freedom Press freedom refers to the right of media organisations, journalists, and individuals to gather, report, and disseminate information without undue interference, censorship, or control by the government, political authorities, or other powerful institutions. It is a cornerstone of democracy, ensuring that citizens have access to information necessary for informed decision-making, holding public officials accountable, and fostering debate on societal issues. According to McQuail (2010), press freedom also implies the autonomy of the media to critique governments, expose corruption, and champion human rights. Press freedom, however, does not mean absolute freedom. Ethical journalism, accuracy, and responsibility are essential to prevent misinformation, defamation, and the abuse of this freedom. Difference Between Freedom of Expression and P ress Freedom Freedom of Expression Definition: Freedom of expression is the broader right of every individual to ...

Introduction This training note is designed to help students clearly understand the functions, systems, coverage and dysfunctions of the mass media, using relatable scenarios drawn from everyday Nigerian experiences. The aim is to move beyond memorisation and help students see how mass media actively shape society in practical and sometimes problematic ways. Functions of the Mass Media The mass media perform essential functions that societies have always needed. According to Harold Lasswell, the media extend social functions that existed long before modern technology. Whether the effects are positive or negative, the media operate within the social system and influence how people see the world, respond to events and relate to one another. Surveillance of the environment. One of the most fundamental functions of the mass media is surveillance of the environment. Through news reports, documentaries and special bulletins, the media monitor events and conditions in society and report them ...

Introduction   This training note is designed to help PGD students clearly understand how modern mass media evolved from earlier systems of public communication. Rather than appearing suddenly, modern media developed gradually from informal and formal methods of information transfer embedded in traditional societies. By tracing this evolution, students can better appreciate mass media as a social institution shaped by culture, necessity and power relations. The antecedents of modern mass media refer to the traditional forms of communication that existed before the emergence of newspapers, radio, television and the internet. These traditional media laid the foundation for organised mass communication by establishing patterns of information sharing, audience gathering, message authority and social influence. Broadly, these antecedents are divided into informal transference media and formal transference media. Informal Transference Media Informal transference media represent the earli...

Long before Nigerians woke up to radio jingles, television news or social media trends, communication was already woven into the fabric of everyday life. Messages travelled without electricity, Wi-Fi or printing presses. They moved through sound, symbols and shared cultural understanding. In many communities, the talking drum was not just an instrument of music; it was a living newspaper. A skilled drummer could announce a king’s decree, warn of danger, celebrate births or mourn deaths, all through rhythmic codes the community understood. In that era, mass communication existed, even though modern technology did not. This early phase of Nigerian mass media was deeply communal. Town criers moved from street to street, delivering messages authorised by traditional rulers. Market squares served as information hubs where news, rumours and decisions circulated freely. Communication was direct, trusted and rooted in shared identity. Although the audience was smaller and localised, the intent...

This training material is designed specifically for PGD students of Mass Communication and related disciplines. It translates the ordinary theoretical contents used in most institutions into an engaging, exam-focused, and easy-to-revise study guide. The explanations are simplified without losing academic depth, and examples are drawn from everyday Nigerian media realities to aid understanding and recall during examinations. This training material has been designed to: mirror everyday Nigerian experiences (traffic, radio, TV dramas, exams, road safety campaigns), translate abstract concepts like mass communication, mediation, scale, permanence and socialisation into mental pictures students can recall in exams, and model how students can use illustrative examples to strengthen essay answers. This approach is to help PG students move from rote learning to applied understanding , which examiners often reward and proves relevant to the society. Definition of Mass Media The concept of mas...

Introduction Conflict is part of everyday human interaction. Whether in personal relationships, workplaces, communities, or even international diplomacy, disagreements will always arise. The key is not to avoid conflict altogether but to understand and manage it in ways that foster trust, build relationships, and lead to long-term solutions. If you are out of touch with your feelings or too stressed to recognise your emotions, you may find it difficult to understand your own needs. This makes it harder to communicate with others about what is truly troubling you. For example, in relationships, couples often argue about trivial things such as how towels are hung or how hair is parted when the real issue lies in unmet needs for respect, attention, or affection. Similarly, in the workplace, employees may quarrel over deadlines or team roles when the deeper conflict is about recognition or fairness. In communities, conflicts may appear to be about land or resources but are often roote...

What is the difference between conflict resolution and conflict management? Conflict Resolution and Conflict Management both deal with disagreements, but they differ in purpose, approach, and outcome. And it’s important to clarify because people often use the two terms interchangeably when in fact they mean different things. Conflict Resolution Definition: Conflict resolution is the process of addressing the root causes of conflict and working toward a solution that satisfies all parties, often leading to the end of the conflict. Goal: To reach a permanent or long-term solution that resolves the disagreement. Approach: It involves negotiation, mediation, compromise, or collaboration to reach an agreement. Example (Workplace): Two colleagues are fighting over project credit. Through mediation, they both acknowledge each other’s contributions and agree on joint recognition. The conflict ends. Example (Community): Two families in a neighbourhood dispute land boundarie...

  Tools for Better Communication Communication is most effective when there is congruence between what we say and what we do. Congruence means our words, tone, and body language all point in the same direction. When these elements do not align, communication becomes misleading, and trust begins to erode. For example, imagine a manager addressing their team by saying, “I’m really excited about this project.” However, their tone is flat, their shoulders are slouched, and their eyes are fixed on the floor. The words say “excitement,” but the non-verbal signals communicate disinterest or even fear. The team will doubt the sincerity of the message because humans are wired to believe what they see and feel more than what they hear. Therefore, being intentional, self-aware, and consistent in our communication is vital for conflict management, leadership, and collaboration. Three Realities of Communication Much of what we communicate is unconscious Many of our gestures, facial...